Institute  of  International  Education 

International  Relations  Clubs 
Syllabus  No.  X  #| 

?;■  ^T>;v  ■'■ '  ’  .’■  V": 

The  Baltic  States 

By  Mary  E.  Townsend,  Ph.D. 


Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City 


September,  1921 


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BUREAU  DIVISIONS 


Institute  of  International  Education 


International  Relations  Clubs 
Syllabus  No.  X 


The  Baltic  States 
By  Mary  E.  Townsend,  Ph.D. 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City 


September,  1921 


PREFACE 


The  following  syllabus  will  doubtless  appear  to  be  more  detailed 
than  general,  to  contain  more  facts  than  suggestions,  thus,  perhaps, 
failing  to  fulfil  the  purpose  of  a  study  outline.  The  defect,  however, 
is  largely  due  to  the  great  scarcity  of  material  in  English  about  the 
Baltic  States  as  well  as  to  the  inaccessibility  of  whatever  there  is. 
The  author  has  therefore  been  forced  to  incorporate  much  in  the 
outline  to  which  it  is  impossible  to  refer  the  students. 

The  nature  of  the  Baltic  States  as  subject  provinces  until  the 
twentieth  century  naturally  explains  the  dearth  of  books  about 
them.  Their  history,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Finland  and 
Lithuania,  must  be  disentangled  from  that  of  their  powerful  neigh¬ 
bors.  Moreover,  the  recent  rapid  nationalist  movements  in  the 
Baltic  States  have  allowed  no  time  for  the  writing  of  adequate  and 
substantial  accounts.  For  the  most  part,  whatever  exists  about 
them  consists  of  propaganda,  speculative  and  ephemeral  magazine 
articles.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  select  the  more  stable  of 
the  latter  as  well  as  to  base  the  tracing  of  recent  events  upon  the 
documents,  some  of  which  are  easily  accessible.  Besides  the 
periodicals  already  mentioned,  the  student  may  find  useful  the 
files  of  The  Nation  (New  York)  and  The  Living  Age. 


New  York ,  March  15,  1921 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2019  with  funding  from 
Columbia  University  Libraries 


https://archive.org/details/balticstatesOOtown 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Alexinsky,  Greg.,  Russia  and  the  Great  War,  New  York,  1915 
Bigelow,  P.,  The  Borderland  of  Tsar  and  Kaiser,  New  York,  1894 
Butler,  R.,  The  New  Eastern  Europe,  London,  1919 

Caro,  J.,  Esthonia,  Her  claims  to  Independence,  published  by  the  Anglo-Esthonian 
Bureau,  London,  September,  1918 
Contempory  Review 

Drage,  Geof.,  Russian  Affairs,  London,  1904 

Eastlake,  E.,  Letters  from  The  Baltic,  London,  1842,  (old,  but  useful  for  descrip¬ 
tion) 

Fisher,  J.  R.,  Finland  and  the  Tsars,  London,  1900 

Fredericksen,  N.  C.,  Finland:  Its  Public  and  Private  Economy,  London,  1902 
Gabrys,  J.,  Lithuania  and  the  Autonomy  of  Poland,  published  by  the  Lithuanian 
Information  Bureau,  Paris,  1915 

Hale,  Robert,  Report  of  the  Mission  to  the  Baltic  Provinces,  Finland,  Esthonia 
Handbooks,  published  by  the  British  Foreign  Office,  Historical  Section,  nos.  44, 
47,  48,  50,  Lithuania,  Finland,  Aland  Islands,  Esthonia,  Courland,  Livonia, 
London,  1920 

Hayes,  C.  H.  J.,  A  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe,  New  York,  1916 

- ,  A  Brief  History  of  The  Great  War,  New  York,  1920 

Hill,  N.,  Poland  and  the  Polish  Question,  London,  1915 
Howe,  Sonia,  A  Thousand  Years  of  Russian  History,  London,  1915 
Jusaitis,  K.  A.,  The  History  of  the  Lithuanian  Nation,  published  by  the  Lithuanian 
Catholic  Truth  Society,  1919 
Kennard,  H.  P.,  The  Russian  Year  Book,  1914 

Larson,  L.,  Territorial  Problems  of  the  Baltic  Basin,  University  of  Illinois,  Bulletin, 
vol.  16,  no.  18,  December,  1918 

Memorandum  on  Latvia,  Addressed  to  the  Peace  Conference  by  the  Lettish 
Delegation,  1919 

Milner,  Thos.,  The  Baltic,  Its  Gates,  Shores  and  Cities,  London,  1854,  (old,  but 
useful  for  description) 

Norman,  H.,  All  the  Russias,  New  York,  1902 

Norus  and  Zilius,  Lithuania's  Case  for  Independence,  Washington,  1918,  issued  by 
the  Lithuanian  National  Council  in  the  United  States 
New  Europe,  The 

Orvis,  Julia,  A  Brief  History  of  Poland,  Boston,  1916 
Phillips,  A.,  Poland,  New  York. 

Rambeau,  Alfred,  A  History  of  Russia,  London,  1879,  second  edition 
Republic  of  Finland,  An  Economic  and  Financial  Survey,  Helsingfors,  1920, 
published  by  the  Central  Statistical  Bureau 
Reade,  A.,  Finland  and  The  Fins,  New  York,  1917 
Renwick,  G.,  Finland  Today,  London,  1911 
Russian  Baedeker,  1914 


Socialist  Library,  The  Revolution  in  the  Baltic  States ,  extra  vol.  no.  i,  edited  by 
Ramsay  MacDonald,  London,  1907 
Stoddard  and  Frank,  The  Stakes  of  the  War,  New  York,  1918 
Szlupas,  John,  Lithuania  in  Prospect  and  Retrospect,  published  by  the  Lithuanian 
Press  Association  of  America 
Times  Current  History  Magazine 

Wolf,  Baron  von  Osten-Lacken,  The  Legal  Position  of  Finland  in  the  Russian 
Empire,  London,  1912 

Young,  E.,  Finland,  The  Land  of  1000  Lakes,  London,  1912 

Pamphlets  on  Lithuania  may  be  obtained  from  The  Lithuanian  National  Council, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


I 

INTERNATIONAL  ASPECT 


A.  Geography 

1.  Position  of  Baltic  Sea  in  relation  to  its  economic  and  political  importance 

to  world 

2.  Position  of  Baltic  States  in  regard  to  control  of  Baltic  Sea  by 
Russia 

Germany 

Scandinavia 

3.  Position  of  Baltic  States  in  regard  to  their  political,  strategic  and  economic 

importance  to  neighboring  Great  Powers 

a.  To  Russia 

Finland  and  Aland  Islands  vital  to  safety  and  westward  expansion 
Esthonia,  Latvia  (Livonia  and  Courland)  necessary  as  “Windows  on 
Baltic,”  essential  for  sea-power  and  for  transit  area 
Lithuania  indispensable  for  defense  and  existence  as  Great  Power, 
valuable  for  agriculture 

b.  To  Germany 

Finland,  Latvia  (Courland,  Livonia)  advantageous  to  powerful  hold 
upon  Russia,  desirable  for  emigration  and  economic  exploitation 
Lithuania,  as  independent  or  annexed,  helpful  to  eastward  expansion, 
to  agricultural  and  industrial  dominance 

c.  To  Sweden  and  Norway 

Finland  and  Aland  Islands  a  menace  if  Russified 

d.  To  Poland 

Lithuania  desirable  for  strength  and  economic  exploitation 

Readings: 

Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  edition,  article  on  Baltic  Sea  by  W.  C.  B.) 

Hernshaw,  F.,  Nineteenth  Century  Magazine ,  vol.  79,  793 

Larson,  L.,  Territorial  Problems  of  the  Baltic  Basin ,  Univ.  of  Illinois, 

Bulletin,  vol.  16,  no.  18 

Stoddard  and  Frank,  The  Stakes  of  the  War ,  55-58,  70-72,  114-115, 

See  maps  in  Shepherd’s  Atlas  and  Muir’s  Atlas 

B.  History 

The  international  struggle  for  control  of  Baltic  Provinces  and  Baltic  Sea, 
which  have  never  passed  under  the  exclusive  control  of  any  one  state 

1.  Danish  conquest  in  the  nth  century:  at  height  in  12th  century 

2.  Germanic  invasions,  1227-1348 

Knights  of  the  Sword,  the  Hansards,  Teutonic  Knights;  their  motives; 
degree  of  colonization  and  settlement 

[7] 


3.  The  hegemony  of  Poland,  1410-1621.  Poland  a  Baltic  power 

4.  The  Baltic  a  Swedish  lake  in  the  17th  century 
Finland  conquered  in  12th  century 

Work  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Conquest  of  Karelia,  Ingria,  Esthonia, 
Livonia 

The  imperialism  of  Charles  XII 

5.  The  great  Northern  War;  the  crucial  conflict,  1699-1721 
Coalition  against  Charles  XII,  of  Russia,  Poland,  Denmark,  Saxony 
Plans  of  distribution  for  the  Baltic  provinces 

Battles  of  Narva,  Poltava,  and  final  defeat  of  Charles  XII 

Treaty  of  Nystadt  and  collapse  of  Swedish  hegemony  in  the  Baltic,  1721 

6.  The  growth  of  Russia  as  a  Baltic  power,  1721-1815 
Russia  supplants  Sweden  in  the  Baltic 

Incorporation  of  Esthonia,  Livonia  and  southern  strip  of  Finland  with 
Fortress  of  Viborg  into  Russia,  1721 
Annexation  of  Finland,  1809 

7.  The  Baltic  “balance  of  power”  since  1815 
The  two  old  powers,  Denmark,  Sweden 
The  two  new  powers,  Russia,  Germany 

8.  The  Baltic  question  in  the  Great  War 

The  control  of  the  Baltic  a  stake  of  the  war 
The  “balance  of  power”  disturbed 

The  new  interests  involved,  Great  Britain  and  France 
The  effect  of  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk;  the  “balance  of  power”  in  favor  of 
Germany 

9.  The  effect  of  the  armistice  and  peace  settlement 
The  rise  of  the  independent  republics 

The  menace  of  Bolshevist  control 

The  uncertainty  of  Russia’s  position 

The  question  of  supremacy  in  the  Baltic  still  undecided 

Readings: 

Bigelow,  P.,  The  Borderland  of  Tsar  and  Kaiser 
Drage,  J.,  Russian  Affairs ,  355-363 

Hayes,  C.  H.  J.,  A  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern  Europe ,  vol.  1,  361, 
374,  376,  378,  381-82,  387-88,  540 

Hill,  N.,  Poland  and  the  Polish  Question,  (Lithuania)  23,  29,  87,  125,  163,  318 
Howe,  Sonia,  A  Thousand  Years  of  Russian  History,  chs.  21,  24,  26 
Orvis,  J.,  A  Brief  History  of  Poland 
Phillips,  A.,  Poland,  30,  32,  38,  44,  62,  114,  117 

Rambeau,  A.,  History  of  Russia,  vol.  1,  146,  et  seq.,  192,  240;  vol.  2,  ch.  1 

Note:  This  section  is  intended  to  give  the  student  merely  a  general  survey  of 
the  relation  of  the  Baltic  States  to  neighboring  powers.  Histories  of  Russia, 
Sweden,  Poland  may  be  employed,  using  index  in  each  case 

[8] 


II 


NATIONAL  ASPECT 

A.  Nationalist  and  anti-nationalist  elements 

I.  Finland 

a.  Geography 

Area,  approximately  125,689  sq.  miles 

Topography,  a  plateau  recently  emerged  from  glacial  period 
Climate,  like  Arctic  Russia 

O  o 

Islands,  numerous,  Aland  group,  extent,  position,  Abo  Archipelago 
Lakes,  many  and  important 
Rivers,  small  and  few 

Ports,  numerous.  Helsingfors,  Hango,  Abo,  Vasa,  etc.,  icebound 

b.  Economic  conditions 
Industries 

Agriculture,  difficult 

Products,  cereals,  dairy  products,  livestock,  flax,  hemp 
Methods,  advanced 

Land  tenure,  movement  to  break  up  large  estates;  many  small 
holdings 

Forestry;  abundant  resources 

Fisheries;  abundant  resources  but  undeveloped 

Manufactures;  recent  growth 

Centers,  few;  Helsingfors,  Abo,  Tammerfors 
Products;  wood,  paper,  textiles,  metals 
Power;  electric  from  lakes  and  waterfalls 
Railroads;  2,553  scb  miles,  almost  all  owned  by  state 
Commerce;  rapidly  increasing 
Natural  outlet  from  Russia 
Foreign  interests;  British,  German 

Readings: 

/ 

Central  Statistical  Bureau,  The  Republic  of  Finland,  containing  maps,  charts, 
pictures,  statistics 

Fisher,  J.  R.,  Finland  and  the  Tsars,  ch.  1 

Fredericksen,  N.  C.,  Finland:  Its  Public  and  Private  Economy,  chs.  3-9 
Handbooks,  published  by  Historical  Section  of  British  Foreign  Office,  no.  47, 
1-7,  65-116,  no.  48,  (Aland  Islands.) 

Kennard,  H.  P.,  Russian  Year  Book,  1912-1915 
Norman,  H.,  All  the  Russias,  chs.  4,  5 
Reade,  A.,  Finland  and  the  Finns,  chs.  5,  10,  13 
Renwick,  G.,  Finland  Today,  chs.  1-7 
Russian  Baedeker,  1914,  198 

c.  Political  history  until  end  of  19th  century 
Tradition  of  independence 

No  historical  records  before  1157 

[9] 


Swedish  conquest,  1157-1809 

Finland  a  Swedish  province,  no  subjugation 
Grand  Duchy  under  Sweden  1581 

A  Swedish  territory  with  no  constitutional  individuality,  represented 
in  Swedish  Diet 

Rapid  development  under  Charles  XI,  1660-1697 
Great  Northern  War,  loss  of  Karelia  and  Viborg  to  Russia  by  Treaty 
of  Nystadt,  1721 

Swedish  Charters  of  Liberty,  1770,  1789 

The  Fundamental  Laws,  basis  of  Finland’s  Constitution 
Russian  conquest,  1809 

Finland  and  Aland  Islands  to  Russia 
Constitution  assured  by  Alexander  I. 

Alexander’s  Manifesto  of  1810  at  Diet  of  Borgo 

The  “legal  dilemma”  of  Finland — a  constitutional  unit  in  a  mon- 
archial  state 

Character  of  Finnish  autonomy 
Unrestricted  in  local  affairs 
Subject  to  Russia  in  foreign  affairs 
Rules  of  Alexander  I;  Nicholas  I 

Finland  peaceful  and  contented  under  rule  of  Governor  General 
and  Constitution 
Rule  of  Alexander  II 
First  meeting  of  Diet  since  1809  in  1863 
The  Constitution  of  1863 

Form  of  govern  nent  established;  Estates,  Senate,  Governor 
General,  Secretary  of  State 
<  Finland  under  its  own  Constitution  until  1899 


Readings: 

Fischer,  chs.  2-10 
Fredericksen,  ch.  11 
Handbook ,  no.  47,  10-30 
Reade,  chs.  1,  16 
Renwick,  ch.  14  to  p.  316 
Russian  Baedeker ,  1914,  200-207 

Wolf,  Baron  von  Osten  Lacken,  The  Legal  Position  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Fin¬ 
land  in  the  Russian  Empire 
Young,  E.,  Finland  the  Land  of  1000  Lakes ,  chs.  8,  10 

d.  Races  and  classes;  races  cut  lengthwise  and  classes  cut  crosswise 

Finns ,  ethnic  origin,  Mongolian;  Tavastians  in  West,  Karelians  in 
East,  90  per  cent  of  population;  form  peasantry  in  country,  work¬ 
men  in  towns 

Aliens ,  Swedes  in  West,  Southwest,  on  coast  and  in  Aland  Islands; 
form  old  landed  aristocracy,  merchants  in  towns  and  sailors 
Lapps 
Russians 


Readings: 

Handbook ,  no.  47,  7,  no.  48  (Aland  Islands) 

Fredericksen,  ch.  1,  2,  3 
Reade,  ch.  3 
Renwick,  ch.  10 
Young,  ch.  9 

e.  Culture  and  Religion 
Language 

Swedish,  official  language  until  1863 

Finnish,  spoken  by  majority  of  Finns,  the  most  highly  developed 
Finno-Ungrian  tongue 
Literature 

Literary  language  established  in  16th  century.  National  revival 
in  1835,  edition  of  Kalevala  by  Lonnrot  called  the  “fifth  national 
epic  of  the  world” 

Education 

Free,  compulsory,  admirably  organized,  96  per  cent  literate. 
University  of  Helsingfors 

Readings: 

Fischer,  ch.  1 
Handbook ,  no.  47,  62-63 
Reade,  chs.  8-10 
Renwick,  chs.  11-13 
Russian  Baedeker ,  1914,  199 
Young,  chs.  13-16 

2.  Esthonia 

a.  Geography 

Area;  includes  Esthonia  and  North  Livonia,  approximately  23,160 
sq.  miles 

Topography;  low  marshes  and  sandy  plains 
Climate;  severe  though  temperate  on  coast,  moist,  cloudy 
Islands;  Dago,  Wormso,  in  Moon  Sound 
Rivers;  Dwina 

Coasts;  on  Gulf  of  Finland  and  Baltic  Sea 
Ports;  Reval,  Kunda,  on  Gulf  of  Finland,  icebound 

b.  Economic  conditions 

Industries 

Agriculture  predominant  though  difficult 
Products;  cereals,  livestock 
Methods;  scientific 
Land  tenure;  many  great  estates 

Peasant  proprietorship  not  gained  until  1863.  Some  peasant 
proprietors 

Forestry;  slight,  resources  abundant 
Manufactures;  recent  growth,  only  slightly  developed 
Centers;  Reval,  Narva,  Dorpat 

In] 


Products;  wood-pulp,  vegetable  oils,  leather,  textiles,  flour 

Railways;  inadequate 

Commerce;  small 

Imports;  manufactured  goods 

Exports;  timber,  corn,  flax,  etc. 

Transit  area  to  German  hinterland 
Foreign  interests;  British 

Readings: 

Handbook,  no.  50,  1-12,  31-77 

Eastlake,  Letters  from  the  Baltic  (old)  ch.  6 

Milner,  T.,  The  Baltic,  Its  Gates,  Shores  and  Cities 

Russian  Baedeker,  1914,  32 

Stoddard  and  Frank,  67 

Scandinavian  Review,  December  1920 

c.  Political  history  until  close  of  19th  century 

Historical  tradition;  subjugation  and  a  continual  struggle  against 
oppression 

German  invasion  in  12th  century 

German  and  Danish  conquest  complete  in  1228 
Teutonic  Order  Supreme,  1346 
Reformation,  1552 

Russian  invasion  under  Ivan  the  Terrible,  1558-1562 
Swedish  conquest,  1660 
Prosperity 

Russian  conquest,  Great  Northern  War  and  Treaty  of  Nystadt,  1721 
Esthonia  a  Russian  province  throughout  19th  century 
Government;  Governor  appointed  by  Tsar 
Diet  composed  of  landed  proprietors 
Old  code  of  civil  law  preserved 

Readings: 

Handbook,  no.  50,  14-25 
Milner,  ch.  6 

Russian  Baedeker,  1914,  31-32 
Stoddard  and  Frank,  65-67 

d.  Races  and  classes 

Races  cut  Esthonia  lengthwise  and  classes  cut  crosswise 
Esths,  ethnic  origin,  Finno-Ungrian  family,  Ural-Altaic  branch 

Peasants  in  country;  serfdom  abolished  1803  but  many  remained 
bound  to  soil  and  service  until  1845 
Workmen  in  towns 
95  per  cent  of  population 

Aliens,  Germans  or  Balts,  the  ruling  class  in  town  and  country;  lost 
feudal  privileges  in  1803  but  dominant  until  1881;  possessed  exten¬ 
sive  rights  of  self-government  in  local  Landtags;  2  per  cent  of  popu- 
.  lation 

Russians,  officials,  few 


Jews,  small  merchants,  few 
Swedes,  few 

e.  Culture  and  Religion 

Language  and  Literature 
Rich  folk-lore 

Literature  the  product  of  last  two  generations 
Newspapers  and  journals 
Education 

“Golden  Age”  under  Sweden 
Popular  schools  and  colleges 
University  of  Dorpat  founded  1662 
High  intelligence  amoiig  peasantry 
Religion;  Lutheran 

Toleration  granted  by  Russia,  renewed  1874 
Russification  of  press,  language,  education,  religion  after  1881 
Survival  of  native  culture  by  means  of  art,  music,  drama,  clubs 
Persistence  of  Lutheranism 

Readings: 

Handbook,  no.  50,  8-12,  28-30 
Eastlake,  Letters  from  the  Baltic 

Milner,  The  Baltic,  etc.  • 

Russian  Baedeker,  1914,  32 
Stoddard  and  Frank,  68 

3.  Livonia  and  Courland  (Latvia  or  Lettland  since  November  13,  1918) 

a.  Geography 

Area;  includes  South  Livonia,  Courland,  Latgale 

Topography;  plateau  and  undulating  plain,  sandy  and  fertile 

Climate;  temperate,  moist,  cloudy 

Coasts;  on  Baltic  Sea 

Islands;  Osel,  Moon,  Runo 

Rivers;  Dwina,  Windau,  Courland,  Aa. 

Ports;  Riga,  icebound.  Libau,  Windau,  ice-free 

b.  Economic  conditions 

Industries 

Agriculture  predominant 
Products;  cereals,  livestock 

Land  tenure;  many  large  estates,  peasant  ownership  not  gained 
until  1863.  Few  peasant  holdings 
Forestry;  extensive  resources 
Fisheries;  numerous 

Mining;  neither  extensive  nor  valuable:  lignite,  chalk,  amber 
Manufactures;  recent  growth 
Centers;  Riga,  Pernau,  Mitau 

Products;  vegetable  oils,  wood-pulp,  paper,  flour,  textiles, 
leather 

Railways;  inadequate 


Commerce;  recent  expansion 

Foreign  interests;  British,  German 
A  transit  area,  opportunity  for  exploitation 

Readings: 

Eastlake,  Letters  from  the  Baltic 

Handbook ,  no.  50,  31-79 

Milner,  The  Baltic ,  etc. 

Stoddard  and  Frank,  67 

c.  Political  history 

Historical  tradition,  subjugation,  constant  struggle  against  oppression 
German  invasion  in  12th  century 
Teutonic  Order  supreme  in  Riga,  1330 
Teutonic  Order  at  height,  1494-1535 
Reformation,  1552 

Russian  invasion  under  Ivan  the  Terrible,  1558-1561 
Livonia  ceded  to  Poland,  1561 

Courland  ceded  as  a  co-vassal  duchy  of  Lithuania  to  Kettler 
Great  prosperity  and  industry 
Livonia  conquered  by  Sweden,  1621 
Time  of  prosperity 

Great  Northern  War;  Livonia  ceded  to  Russia  byTreaty  of  Nystadt,  1721 
Courland  annexed  to  Russia,  1795 

Livonia  and  Courland  as  Russian  provinces  throughout  19th  century 
Government,  same  as  Esthonia 

Readings: 

Handbook ,  no.  50,  13-25 

Memorandum  of  Latvia  to  Peace  Conference,  7-8 

Russian  Baedeker,  1914,  33 

d.  Races  and  classes 

Races  cut  lengthwise  and  classes  cut  crosswise 
Ancient  Cours  and  Livs,  present  survivals 

Letts,  ethnic  origin,  Indo-European,  Baltic  group;  related  to  Letts  in 
Lithuania;  form  peasants  in  country  (serfdom  abolished  1819),  and 
workmen  in  towns;  form  75  per  cent  of  population 
Aliens,  Germans  or  Balts,  upper  class  in  town  and  country,  owners  of 
big  estates;  rights  of  self-government  in  local  Landtags  until  1881; 
form  10  per  cent  of  population 
Russians,  officials,  7  per  cent  of  population 
Jews,  small  merchants 

e.  Culture  and  Religion 

Language  and  Literature 
Rich,  original  literature 
Periodicals,  journals,  59  before  war 
Books,  827  published  1912 
Education 
No  illiterates 


98  Secondary  schools  before  war 
670  Societies  working  for  education  before  war 
Dramatic  art,  fine  arts,  music 

Readings: 

Eastlake,  Letters  from  the  Baltic 
Handbook ,  no.  50,  8-12,  28-30 
Milner,  The  Baltic 

Memorandum  to  Peace  Conference,  5-6 
Stoddard,  Frank,  68-69 

Contemporary  Review,  Lees  F.,  Aug.  1918,  vol.  112,  178 

4.  Lithuania 

a.  Geography 

Area;  frontiers  not  yet  defined,  contain  districts  of  Vilna,  Kovno, 
Suwalki,  approximately  36,000  sq.  miles.  Present  Lithuanian  gov¬ 
ernment  claims  East  Prussia,  Grodno,  part  of  Courland 
Topography;  a  plateau  in  west;  a  plain,  the  Pripet  marshes,  in  east 
Climate;  temperate 

Towns;  Vilna,  Grodno,  Bialystock,  Minsk 

Rivers;  Dwina  and  Niemen,  draining  to  Baltic  Sea,  Dnieper  to  Black  Sea 
Port;  Memel 

b.  Economic  conditions 
Industries 

Agriculture,  predominant 
Products;  cereals,  livestock 
Methods;  antiquated  before  war 

Land  tenure;  Ukase  1861,  Land  law  1906.  Large  estates  and 
many  peasant  holdings 
Forestry;  resources  abundant;  undeveloped 
Mining;  no  resources 

Fisheries;  abundant  resources,  undeveloped 
Manufactures;  very  few 

Breweries,  flour  mills,  tanneries,  paper  mills.  Little  use  made  of 
national  products 

Centers;  Vilna,  Grodno,  Bialystock 
Commerce;  no  trading  centers  before  war 
Exports,  considerable 
Timber;  cereals,  horses,  dairy  products 
Imports:  few,  manufactured  articles 
Foreign  interest;  German 

Readings: 

Handbook,  44,  12-19,  104- 140 

Norus  and  Zilius,  Lithuania’s  Case  for  Independence 
(Issued  by  Lithuanian  Council  in  United  States)  47-53 

c.  Political  history 
Tradition  of  independence 

No  political  organization  before  10th  century 
Invasion  of  Teutonic  Knights  and  Knights  of  the  Sword 

[15] 


Result:  formation  of  a  monarchic  state 
Lithuania  at  height  of  greatness,  I3th-I4th  centuries 
Vast  extent  of  territory,  Baltic  to  Black  Sea 
Services  claimed  to  have  rendered  civilization 
Deliverance  of  Russia  from  Mongols 
Stemming  advance  of  Teutonic  Knights  into  east 
Union  with  Poland,  1366 
Separatist  tendencies 
Necessity  for  many  Acts  of  Union 
Union  of  Lublin,  1569 

Attempt  of  Poland  to  absorb  Lithuania 
Annexation  by  Russia,  1772,  1793,  1795 
Period  of  Russian  oppression,  1815-1905 

Promise  of  constitutional  government  in  Treaty  of  Vienna 
Tsar’s  title,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania 
Rule  of  Alexander  I,  liberal 
Rule  of  Nicholas  I 
Rising  of  1830 

Lithuania  destroyed  politically 
Rule  of  Alexander  II 
Revolt  of  1863 

Exclusion  of  Lithuania  from  Zemstvo  system  of  1864 
Rule  of  Alexander  III 
Extreme  Russification 

Readings: 

Gabrys,  Z.,  Lithuania  and  the  Autonomy  of  Poland,  published  by  the  Lithuanian 
Information  Bureau,  Paris,  1915 

Handbook,  no.  44,  41-47 

Norus  and  Zilius,  9-20 

Phillips,  A.,  Poland,  28-42  et  seq. 

Szlupas,  Z.,  Lithuania  in  Restrospect  and  Prospect,  published  by  Lith.  Press 
Assoc,  of  America 

Jusaitis,  K.,  History  of  the  Lithuanian  Nation,  published  by  Lith.  Cath.  Truth 
Society,  chs.  1-5 

Times  Current  History  Magazine,  vol.  7,  pt.  2,  501  (maps  of  early  greatness) 


d.  Races  and  classes 

Races  cut  lengthwise  and  classes  crosswise 

Letts,  ethnic  origin,  an  Indo-European  race,  majority  of  population, 
oppressed  peasantry  in  country  and  workmen  in  towns 

Aliens,  Poles,  dominant  economically 
Land  owners  and  upper  class  in  towns 
Germans,  in  towns,  prominent  in  industry 
Russians,  officials,  few 
Jews,  small  merchants,  numerous 

Readings: 

Handbook,  no.  44,  19-24 
Norus  and  Zilius,  7 
Szlupas,  12-15 

[16] 


e.  Culture  and  religion 
Language  and  literature 

A  distinct  language  belonging  to  Indo-European  division,  resembling 
the  ancient  Sanscrit,  oldest  Indo-European  tongue 
Current  literature  rich  in  song  and  story,  folk-lore 
Rise  of  Lithuanian  literature  in  16th  century 
Dauksha,  translator  of  Bible 
Donelaitis,  poet 
Shirvydas,  the  lexicographer 
Polonization  of  literature 
Russification  of  literature 

Prohibition  of  Lithuanian  press,  1864 
Prohibition  of  Latin  script,  1864 
The  new  national  movement,  1883 

Work  of  the  Lithuanian  Catholic  clergy 
Publication  of  Auszra  or  Dawn  in  Prussia 
Press  ban  lifted  by  Russia  in  1904 
Period  of  unusual  activity 
Education,  predominately  Polish 

No  Lithuanian  intelligensia  until  very  recently 
Work  of  Catholic  clergy  to  preserve  Lithuanian  learning 
Religion,  Roman  Catholic 

Conflict  with  orthodox  Church 

Readings : 

Handbook,  no.  44,  19-24 
Jusaitis,  ch.  6 

Lees,  G.,  Contemporary  Review,  vol.  114,  151 
Norus  and  Zilius,  7,  55-62 

B.  Recent  nationalist  and  democratic  movements 
1.  Finland,  the  leader  of  revolt 
a.  Against  Sweden 
Causes 

The  assertion  of  Finnish  nationalism 

The  waning  of  Swedish  culture,  political  and  economic  power 
The  influence  of  the  industrial  revolution 
Beginnings 

Rise  of  Fennoman  movement,  the  cultural,  political  and  economic 
Finnish  renascence  in  middle  of  nineteenth  century 
Formation  of  parties 

Svecoman,  conservative,  anti- Russian  and  pro-Swede 
Old  Finn,  liberal,  bourgeois,  anti-Swede  and  pro-Russian 
Young  Finn,  bourgeois,  liberal  and  radical,  the  intelligensia,  anti- 
Russian  and  anti-Swede,  “Finland  for  the  Finns” 

Result 

The  triumph  of  the  Finns  and  growth  in  power  of  middle  and  in¬ 
tellectual  class,  1869-1898 
Rapid  social  and  national  development 

[17] 


b.  Against  Russia 
Cause 

Russia’s  infringement  of  Finland’s  constitutional  rights 
Beginnings 

Russification  under  Nicholas  II 
Conscription  imposed  1898 
Dictator,  Bobrikoff,  appointed,  1898 
Abrogation  of  Constitution,  1899 

General  Pan-Slavist  policy  against  language,  press,  education,  religion 
Results 

Passive  resistance,  1899-1904 
Assassination  Bobrikoff,  1904 
Rise  of  cooperative  movement 

Formation  of  Fennoman  Socialist  Party  at  Congress  of  Abo,  1899 
Nucleus,  group  of  trade  unions  formed  1890 
Marxist  basis 

Political  organization  complete,  1903 
Membership,  45,000  in  1905 
Effect  of  Russian  revolution,  1905 
Socialists  in  charge,  general  strike 
Capitulation  of  Russian  government 
Manifesto  of  1908 
Reform  of  Diet 

Growth  of  socialism  and  consequent  alarm  of  Svecoman  bourgeoisie 
Rising  of  “Reds”  at  Sveaborg,  1906 
Renewal  of  Russification,  1908 

Finland  under  Russian  Council  Ministers 
Destruction  of  constitution,  1910 
Law  of  Rights  of  Russians  in  Finland,  1910 
Effect  of  the  Great  War,  1914 
Political 

Extension  of  program  of  Russification,  1914 
No  promise  of  autonomy 
Growth  of  Socialist  Party 
Opposition  to  capitalist  War 
Social  and  economic 

Great  industrial  prosperity 
Agriculture  neglected  for  industry 
Increase  of  proletariat  in  towns 
Growth  of  Socialist  Party 

Readings: 

Butler,  R.,  The  New  Eastern  Europe ,  7-1 7 

Fisher,  chs.  9-16 

Fredericksen,  ch.  11 

Handbook ,  no.  47,  20-41 

Reade,  chs.  2,  17,  (pp.  289-305),  18 

Ren  wick,  316-332* 

Young,  chs.  8  (pp.  147-152),  10,  18 

[18] 


Effect  of  Russian  Revolution,  March,  1917 
Political 

Restoration  of  Finland’s  constitution  by  Russian  Provisional  Govern¬ 
ment,  March  20,  1917 
The  new  Diet,  April,  1917 
The  constitution 
Democratic  legislation 
Growth  of  Socialist  Party 

Forms  80  per  cent,  of  Diet  in  April 
“Red”  risings  at  Viborg  and  Helsingfors 
Split  in  party,  “Reds,”  Moderates 
Disinclination  for  autonomy 
Alarm  of  bourgeois  parties 

Intrigues  with  Russians  and  Germans 

Desire  for  autonomy  to  cut  connections  with  Bolshevist  Russia 
Coalition  outnumbers  Socialist  majority  in  Diet,  autumn  of  1917 
Social  and  economic 

Intensification  of  internal  difficulties 
Shortage  of  food  supply 
Growth  of  socialism 

Effect  of  Bolshevist  coup  d’etat,  November  1917 

Declaration  of  Finland’s  independence  by  Moderates,  November  15, 
1917 

Adopted  by  Diet,  December  7 

Recognized  by  Russian  Bolsheviki,  January  4,  1918,  by  Scandinavian 
countries,  France,  Germany 

Outbreak  of  civil  war  and  war  for  independence,  January  29,  1918 
Immediate  cause 

Pro-German  leaning  of  bourgeois  parties 
Intrigues  with  Russians  and  Germans 

Moderate  Socialists  thrown  into  sympathy  with  Bolshevik  “Reds,” 
strengthened  by  Russian  “Reds” 

Lack  of  food  and  social  disorders 
The  horrors  of  the  war 
The  “White  Terror” 

The  “Red  Terror” 

The  Finnish  Social  Republic  of  Workmen 

Treaty  of  amity  with  Russian  Federated  Soviet  Republic,  March  1, 1919 
Treaty  of  Peace  with  Germany,  March  7,  1918.  Germany  recognized 
Finland’s  independence 
Effect  of  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk 
German  influence  strengthened 

Complete  victory  of  “Whites”  under  Mannerheim,  aided  by  Germans 
and  Russians 

The  non-intervention  of  Sweden 

Germans  depose  Mannerheim  and  assume  charge  of  the  Finnish  armies, 
June,  1918 

Crown  offered  to  German  prince 

[  19] 


Effect  of  Armistice  and  peace  settlement 
Decline  of  German  influence 

Election  of  Mannerheim  as  Regent,  conservative  candidate 
Election  of  Stalberg,  moderate  liberal,  Swedish-Finn,  elected  by  Liberals 
and  Socialists 

Recognition  of  Finland  as  an  independent  Republic  by  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  May  6,  7,  1919 
Treaty  with  Soviet  Government,  December  26,  1920 

Boundaries  settled  and  independence  recognized  with  no  conditions 

Readings: 

Alexinsky,  Greg.,  Russia  and  The  Great  War ,  216-220 
Butler,  17-20 

Contemporary  Review ,  Wright,  H.,  vol.  113,  447,  Reuter,  J.,  vol.  115,  51 1 
Handbook ,  no.  47,  47-61 

Hayes,  C.  H.  J.,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Great  War,  230,  237,  251,  255,  259,  290, 
300,  334,  335,  359,  392,  397,  402 

Times  Current  History  Magazine ,  Text  Treaty,  Germany  and  Finland,  vol.  8, 
pt.  1,  438 

Text  Treaty,  Finland  and  Russian  Government,  vol.  13,  pt.  2,  472 
Saas,  A.,  vol.  11,  pt.  2,  104 

2.  Esthonia 

Beginnings 

Causes 

Centuries  of  German  rule  until  middle  of  19th  century 
Political,  diets  in  control  of  Balt  barons 

Economic,  agrarian  dominance  of  Balts  in  spite  of  emancipation  and 
land  laws. 

Social  and  cultural,  complete  dominance  of  Germans 
Rise  of  Esthonian  national  spirit 
Influence  of  industrial  revolution 
Russification  after  1881 

Political,  Russian  bureaucracy  instead  of  Balt  barons 
Social  and  cultural,  displacement  of  German  language,  religion,  edu¬ 
cation  by  Russian 
Results 

Precipitation  of  national  and  social  movements 
Rise  of  Young  Balt  party  to  preserve  German  Kultur 
Rise  of  Young  Esthonian  party 
Aims 

The  overthrow  of  Balt  land  monopoly  and  oligarchy 
Autonomy  in  Russian  state,  under  democratic  institutions 
Methods 

Formation  of  cooperative  societies 
Intellectual  development 
Effect  of  Russian  Revolution  of  1905 
Rise  of  Socialist  Party 

Formed  from  industrial  and  agricultural  workers 

[20] 


Suppression  of  nationalist  and  socialist  movement  by  Russia  with 
assistance  of  German  Balts 
Effect  of  the  Great  War 

Nationalist  Socialists  side  with  Russia  against  Germany 
Russia  encourages  nationalism  against  Germans 
Effect  of  Russian  Revolution  March,  1917 

Right  to  elect  Esthonian  National  Council,  on  basis  of  universal  suffrage, 
granted  by  Provisional  Russian  Government,  April  13,  1917 
First  National  Esthonian  Assembly,  July  14,  1917 
Provisional  government  established 

Declaration  for  a  national  democratic  organization,  local  autonomy, 
federation  with  Russia 

Effect  of  Bolshevik  coup  d’etat,  November,  1917 

Declaration  of  Provisional  Government,  November  28,  1917 
Bolshevik  invasion  of  Esthonia 
Appeal  of  German  Balts  to  Germany  for  aid 
Strong  opposition  of  Esthonians 
Establishment  of  German  military  rule 
Protest  of  Esthonians,  February  4,  1918 
Counter-establishment  of  Esthonian  Democratic  Government  under 
C.  Paets,  February  24 
Effect  of  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk 

German  military  occupation  until  November,  1918:  Esthonia  a 
“second  Belgium” 

Continuance  of  Esthonian  government 

Protests  against  German  rule,  March  21,  April  13 
Recognition  of  the  de  facto  Esthonian  government  by  France,  May, 
1918 

Encouragement  from  Great  Britain 
Effect  of  armistice  and  peace  settlement 

Emergence  of  Esthonian  Provisional  Government  at  Reval  under 
C.  Paets 

Terms  providing  for  German  troops  remaining  as  guard  against  Bolshe- 
viki 

Retreat  of  “Teutonism  by  back  door  and  invasion  of  Bolshevism  by 
front  door” 

Renewed  struggle  with  Bolshevism 
Brave  fight  of  Esthonians 
Aid  from  Great  Britain  and  Finland 
Bolshevism  expelled,  February  1,  1919 
Esthonian  Constituent  Assembly  elected  April,  1919 

Formation  of  democratic  government  with  Strandman,  Prime  Minister 
Esthonian  government  presents  case  to  Peace  Conference 
Attitude  of  Allies,  caution 

Final  negotiations  with  Bolsheviki  August — December  1919 
Peace  of  Dorpat,  1920 

Russia  grants  complete  independence 
Esthonia  grants  free  economic  access  to  sea 

(21  ] 


Recognition  of  Esthonia  by  Allied  Governments,  except  United  States, 
January  27,  1921 
Attitude  of  United  States 

Readings: 

Alexinsky,  Greg.,  208-211 
Butler,  21-23 

Caro,  Z.,  Esthonia ,  Her  Claims  to  Independence ,  published  by  Anglo-Esthonian 
Bureau,  September,  1918 
Hale,  Robert,  The  Baltic  Provinces 

Report  of  the  Mission  to  Finland,  Esthonia,  Latvia,  Lithuania  (Presented  by 
Mr.  Lodge),  1919 
Handbook ,  no.  50,  23-27 

Hayes,  Brief  History  of  the  War,  238,  255,  334,  341,  359,  397,  402 
Laaman,  E.,  Contemporary  Review,  vol.  117,  696 
Morrison,  S.,  The  New  Europe,  vol.  12,  200 
Piip,  A.,  Contemporary  Review,  vol.  114,  242  * 

- ,  The  New  Europe,  vol.  15,  6 

3.  Latvia  or  Lettland 

Character  of  movement,  similar  to  one  in  Esthonia  but  more  violent  and 
intense  because  of  closer  proximity  to  Germany  and  closer  relation¬ 
ship  with  Russian  Socialists 
The  beginnings 
Causes 

German  domination  for  centuries 

Political,  control  of  local  diets  by  Balt  barons 
Economic,  agrarian  supremacy  of  Balts 
Social  and  cultural,  complete  German  domination 
Influence  of  industrial  revolution  at  close  of  nineteenth  century 
Russification  after  1881 

Political,  Russian  bureaucracy  instead  of  German  Balts 
Social  and  cultural,  Russian  language,  religion,  education  instead  of 
German  Kultur 
Results 

Precipitation  of  national  and  social  movements 
National  renascence  1840 
Rise  of  land  holding  peasantry  1863-1870 
Rise  of  Lettish  nationalist  bourgeoisie  in  town  and  country 
Rise  of  Lettish  Social  Democratic  proletariat,  1893-1894 
Formation  of  Lettish  Social  Democratic  Party,  1904 
Aims 

The  establishment  of  a  Russian  Democratic  Republic  allowing 
home  rule  to  all  nationalists 
Methods 

Education  of  class  consciousness 

Preparation  for  armed  uprising  and  the  general  strike 
Church  demonstrations 
Organization  of  “circles” 

[22  ] 


Effect  of  Russian  Revolution  of  1905 
The  revolution  in  Riga,  1905 
Socialist  congresses 
Revolution  in  the  country 
Church  demonstrations 
Attack  on  Balt  barons 
The  October  general  strike 
The  trade  union  movement 

The  Tsar’s  penal  expedition,  the  counter  revolution,  its  horrors 
German  Balts  as  Russian  agents 
Balt  unions  for  defense  of  German  Kultur 
Lettish  bourgeoisie  on  side  of  “law  and  order” 

Lett  unions  for  education,  culture,  credit  banks 
Effect  of  the  Great  War,  1914 
Letts  loyal  to  Russia;  hatred  of  Balts  intensified 
The  Lett  Battalion 
German  invasion  of  Latvia,  1915 

Effect  of  Russian  Revolution,  March  1917 

Inability  of  Russian  Provisional  Government  to  grant  a  National 
Council,  as  in  Esthonia,  because  of  German  occupation 
Meeting  of  Courland  National  Assembly,  July  1917;  declaration  of 
independence  instead  of  home  rule 
Effect  of  Bolshevist  coup  d’etat,  1917 

Lett  Battalion  joins  Bolshevists  and  supports  Lenin 
Formation  of  Landesrats  or  Councils  by  Germans  at  Riga  and  Mitau, 
used  as  tools  of  Berlin  government. 

German  Balt  landlords  form  two  thirds  of  Councils 
Formation  of  secret  Lettish  National  Council,  September,  1917,  and 
“Riga  bloc”;  opposed  German  and  Russian  annexation 
Effect  of  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk 

German  influence  strengthened;  establishment  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Courland  by  vote  of  National  Council  under  German  influence, 
May  18,  1917;  crown  offered  to  a  Hohenzollern 
Effect  of  armistice  and  peace  settlement 
Collapse  of  German  influence  and  Councils 

Formation  of  the  Latvian  State  Council  as  a  result  of  secret  work  ol 
Lettish  National  Council  and  “Riga  bloc.” 

Latvia  declared  a  free  and  independent  republic,  November  18,  1918 
Invasion  of  Bolsheviki 

Return  of  Germans  under  von  der  Goltz 
Overthrow  of  Latvian  Provisional  Government 
Struggle  of  political  factions,  Balt,  German,  Lett;  the  Needra  Govern¬ 
ment 

Interference  and  advice  of  Allied  and  American  representatives 
Formation  of  coalition  cabinet  of  6  Letts,  2  Balts,  1  Jew,  July,  1919 
Presentation  of  Latvia’s  case  at  Peace  Conference 
Attitude  of  Allies;  caution 


Final  conclusion  of  treaty  with  Russian  Soviet  Government,  August  n, 
1920 

Russia  grants  Latvia  complete  freedom  and  exemption  from  war 
debts 

Latvia  grants  Russia  free  economic  transit  to  sea 
Recognition  of  Latvia  by  Allied  Powers,  except  United  States,  January 
27,  1921 

Attitude  of  United  States 
Readings: 

Alexinsky,  211-216 
Butler,  21-25 

Contemporary  Review, \ ol.  1 18, 581,737.  Text  ofTreaty  between  Latvia  and  Russia 
Hale,  Report  of  Mission  to  Finland,  Esthonia,  Latvia  and  Lithuania 
Hayes,  Brief  History  of  Great  War,  12 1,  234,  238,  254,  256,  300,  334,  359,  397,  402 
Memorandum  to  the  Peace  Conference,  8-12 
Morrison,  The  New  Europe,  vol.  12,  77,  107,  155 

Socialist  Library,  Extra  vol.  1,  The  Revolution  in  the  Baltic  Provinces  (edited  by 
Ramsay  MacDonald) 

Wright,  C.,  Contemporary  Review,  vol.  116,  162 
4.  Lithuania  ' 

Character  of  movement,  a  triple  struggle  against  Poland,  Germany, 
Russia 
Beginnings 
Causes 

Polish  oppression 

Early  period,  from  Lithuanian — Polish  Union,  1386,  to  Russian 
annexation,  1795  \ 

Renewal  of  Polonization  in  nineteenth  century 

Political,  the  Polish  National  Democratic  movement  and  attempt 
to  revive  a  Poli$h-Lithuanian  Union 

Power  of  Polish  nobility  and  polonized  Lithuanian  nobility 
Economic,  agrarian  supremacy  of  Polish  nobility  and  Polonized 
Lithuanian  nobility 

Social  and  cultural,  complete  Polonization  of  education  (Uni¬ 
versity  of  Vilna  and  schools),  religion,  language.  Absence  of 
a  Lithuanian  intelligensia 
German  oppression 

In  Prussian  or  Minor  Lithuania,  complete  German  political,  eco¬ 
nomic  and  cultural  dominance 
Russian  oppression 

Early  period  beginning  1795 

Partition,  appropriation  of  territory,  attempted  de-national¬ 
ization 

Period  of  extreme  Pan-slavism;  a  double  Russification  directed 
against  Poles  and  Lithuanians  in  Lithuania 
Political 

Abolition  of  Lithuanian  statute  and  substitution  of  Russian  law 

[24] 


Russian  bureaucracy 
Lithuanians  debarred  from  public  life 
Economic 

Colonization  of  land  with  Russians 
Land-holding  by  Lithuanians  limited 

Practical  exclusion  of  Lithuanians  from  business  and  commerce 
Social  and  cultural 

Russification  of  education,  language,  religion 
Suppression  of  Lithuanian  press  and  of  Latin  script 

Results 

National  revival  under  Bishop  of  Samogitia,  1840-1850 
Social,  intellectual,  religious 

Work  of  Catholic  clergy  in  keeping  alive  Lithuanian  language  and 
literature 

Rise  of  a  Lithuanian  intclligensia  from  peasantry 
Rise  of  young  Lithuanian  parties 

Social  Democrats,  unlike  violent  Lettish  Socialists 
Appeared  1902-1903 
Composed  of  city  workmen,  small 

Peoples  Socialists,  like  Russian  Social  Revolutionists,  led  by 
Kerensky 

Democrat,  composed  mostly  of  intellectuals 
Rise  of  a  secret  Lithuanian  press 
Effect  of  Russian  Revolution,  1905 

Meeting  of  National  Assembly  at  Vilna,  November,  1905 
Declaration  for  autonomy  in  a  federated  Russia 
Nationalist  demands  for  education 

Reply  of  Russia,  cessation  of  Russification  and  granting  of  Nationalist 
demands 

Convention  of  Lithuanians  in  America  at  Philadelphia,  1906 
Effect  of  the  Great  War,  1914 

Proclamation  of  Russian  government  promising  national  autonomy 
at  close  of  war 

German  invasion  and  occupation,  1915 
Attitude  and  sufferings  of  Lithuanians 
Organization  of  National  Council,  1916 
Demands  for  national  independence  outside  Lithuania 
Stockholm  Conference,  October,  1916 
Berne  Conference,  March,  1916 
Lithuanian  Conference  in  America,  1917 
Conference  in  Moscow,  1917 
Effect  of  Russian  Revolution,  March,  1917 

No  grant  of  autonomy  from  Russian  Provisional  Government 
Proclamation  of  national  independence  by  National  Council;  unpub¬ 
lished  under  Germany’s  orders 

Germany’s  promise  to  support  national  independence  after  war 
Acceptance  of  German  rule  from  fear  of  Poland 
Effect  of  Bolshevist  coup  d’etat,  1917 

[25] 


Declaration  of  independence  from  Russia,  December  n,  1917 
Proclamation  of  Lithuania  as  a  free,  independent  republic,  February 
16,  1918 

Recognition  (de  facto)  by  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Italy 
Effect  of  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk 

Complete  German  domination  until  November,  1918 
“Recognition”  of  Lithuanian  independence  by  Germany,  March  23,  1918 
German  Prince  “elected”  as  King:  accepted  by  Lithuanians  from  fear  of 
Polish  invasion 

Effect  of  armistice  and  peace  settlement 
Partial  collapse  of  German  rule 

Reorganization  of  National  Council,  January  14,  1919 
Formation  of  provisional  government 
Invasion  of  Bolsheviki 

Strong  resistance  of  Lithuanians 
Polish  invasion  on  pretext  of  fighting  Bolsheviki 
Occupation  of  Vilna 
Fomentation  of  Bolshevik  risings 

Lithuanian  protests  to  Peace  Conference;  attitude  of  Allies 
Peace  with  Bolshevik  Government,  July  12,  1920 
Effect  of  Polish  imperialism 

Second  invasion  of  Vilna  under  General  Zeligowski  in  spite  of  agree¬ 
ment  of  October  7,  1920 

Lithuanians  forced  to  agree  to  plebiscite  under  League  of  Nations 
Status  of  Lithuania  rendered  uncertain 

Non-recognition  of  Lithuania  by  Allied  Powers  (March,  1921) 

Readings: 

Butler,  ch.  3 
Gabrys,  8-9 

Hale,  Report  of  Mission  to  Baltic  Provinces 
Handbook ,  no.  44,  47-49 
Jusaitis,  130-202 

Lees,  G.  Contemporary  Review,  vol.  114,  151 
- ,  Contemporary  Review ,  vol.  118,  57 

Martus,  A.,  Times  Current  History  Magazine,  vol.  8,  pt.  1,  458 
Norus  and  Zilius,  60-95 

III 

TPIE  PRESENT  STATUS  OF  THE  BALTIC  STATES:  THEIR  NATIONAL 
AND  INTERNATIONAL  PROBLEMS  AND 
PROPOSED  SOLUTIONS 

A.  Finland 

1.  Status,  a  free,  independent  republic,  recognized  by  Allied  Powers,  the 
United  States  and  Russian  Soviet  Government 

Readings: 

The  Statesman1  s  Yearbook,  1920,  816-820 
Whitakers  Almanac,  1921,  756 


[26] 


2.  Problems 

The  Aland  Islands  question 
Causes 

Sweden’s  claims  and  interests 

Historic;  Swedish  domination  from  12th  century  until  1809 
Economic;  bulk  of  trade  with  Sweden 

Geographic;  close  relationship;  an  open  sea  between;  Abo  nearer 
Sweden  than  Finland 

Racial;  Swedish  element  96  per  cent,  of  population 
Cultural;  Swedish  language,  schools 

Strategic;  danger  of  a  naval  base  belonging  to  a  hostile  power: 
Islands  key  to  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
Russia’s  claims  and  interests 
Historic;  conquest  in  1809 
Economic;  ports 

Geographic;  a  part  of  Finland  before  its  loss 
Racial;  none 
Cultural;  none 

Strategic;  a  base  for  fortifications 

1835,  Fortress  of  Bomarsund  begun,  destroyed  by  British  fleet, 
1854 

1856,  Treaty  of  Paris,  Convention  forbidding  fortification  of 
Islands 

1906,  Russian  garrison  established 

1907,  Russia’s  request  to  Great  Britain  and  France  to  cancel 
Convention  of  1856 

1907,  secret  treaty  between  Russia  and  Germany,  giving  Russia 
a  free  hand  in  Islands 

1908,  Baltic  Treaty,  Russia,  Germany,  Sweden,  Denmark:  no 
ban  on  fortification  implied 

1908,  Declaration  of  Earl  Grey  against  fortification  of  Islands 
Finland’s  claims  and  interests 

Historic;  Islands  always  a  part  of  Finland  and  under  her  adminis¬ 
tration  except  for  brief  periods 
Economic;  slight 

Geographic;  close;  linked  under  water,  only  a  shallow  sea  and 
islands  between 

Racial;  too  small  for  consideration  , 

Cultural;  none 
Strategic;  a  naval  base 
Effect  of  Great  War 

Fortification  of  Islands  by  Russia 
Alarm  aroused  in  Sweden 
Effect  of  Russian  Revolution,  March,  1917 
Formation  of  Communal  Assembly 

Wish  expressed  for  reunion  with  Sweden,  August,  1917 
Effect  of  Bolshevist  coup  d’etat,  September,  1917 
Alarm  in  Sweden  increased  by  publication  of  secret  treaty  of  1907 

[27] 


Demand  of  Islanders  by  plebiscite  for  reunion  with  Sweden,  Decem¬ 
ber,  1917 

Independence  of  Finland  recognized  by  Sweden  and  Germany,  1918 
Bolshevist  force  landed  in  Islands 

Swedish  military  expedition  into  Islands,  February,  1918 
Appeal  of  Islanders  for  reunion  with  Sweden,  March,  1918 
Effect  of  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk 

Agreement  between  Sweden,  Germany,  Finland  not  to  fortify 
Islands 

Effect  of  armistice  and  peace  settlement 

Appeals  of  Islanders  for  reunion  with  Sweden  to  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  November,  1918 
Deputation  of  Islanders  to  Paris,  February,  1919 
Question  submitted  to  the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations  and  still 
unsettled  (March  15,  1921) 

Finland’s  objection 

Readings: 

Handbook ,  no.  50 

Valentin,  H.,  The  New  Europe ,  vol.  6,  184  and  vol.  15,  226 
Westermarck,  E.,  Contemporary  Review ,  vol.  118,  790 

3.  Future  Status:  Proposals 
An  independent  state 

Difficulties  in  maintaining  political  and  economic  power 
Union  with  Esthonia 

Advantages  urged,  racial  similarity,  strength 

Disadvantages  urged,  nationalist  differences,  disparity  of  economic 
development 

Leader  of  a  Baltic  League  or  Entente 

Conference  of  five  Baltic  States,  including  Poland,  August,  1920 

Aim,  to  lay  the  foundations  for  a  political  and  economic  entente  in  the 
north,  similar  to  the  “Little  Entente” 

Outlook,  favorable  (March,  1921) 

(See  below  under  Esthonia  and  Latvia) 

Readings: 

Contemporary  Review ,  vol.  118,  579 

B.  Esthonia  and  Latvia 

1.  Status 

Esthonia,  a  free  independent  Republic,  recognized  by  Allied  Powers  and 
Soviet  Russia 
Government 

Latvia,  a  free  independent  Republic,  recognized  by  Allied  Powers  and 
Soviet  Russia 
Government 

2.  Problems 

Present  economic  prostration 


[28] 


The  London  “Banking  Group”  and  its  plan  for  “practical  reconstruction” 
3.  Future  Status:  Proposals 

Autonomous  states  in  a  federated  Russia 
Advantages  urged: 

Political,  protection  and  strength 

Economic,  Russia’s  need  of  Baltic  ports  and  Baltic  ports'  need  of 
Russia 

Disadvantages  urged: 

Too  many  nationalities  to  consider 
Present  deep  distrust  of  Russia 

Independent  states  with  economic  guarantees  to  Russia  (present  status) 
Advantages  urged: 

Freedom  of  Baltic  dependent  on  freedom  of  Esthonia  and  Latvia 
Gateway  for  world’s  commerce  into  eastern  Europe  assured 
Menace  of  a  German  Baltic  League  and  Baltic  lake  weakened 
Disadvantages  urged: 

Lack  of  adequate  political  and  economic  power  to  maintain  inde¬ 
pendence 

A  prey  for  future  German  and  Russian  aggression 
An  opportunity  for  future  war 
Federation  in  a  Baltic  League  or  Entente 
Arguments  for: 

Small  nations  in  same  region  and  with  contiguous  frontiers 
Creation  of  a  buffer  state  between  Germany  and  Russia 
Reduction  of  Russian  and  German  aggression 

Establishment  of  northeastern  European  stability  and  equilibrium 
A  guarantee  of  permanent  peace 
Arguments  against: 

Difficulty  of  nationalist  elements,  five  distinct  languages,  interests, 
traditions 

Rivalry  for  leadership  between  Poland  and  Finland 

Readings: 

Conlempory  Review ,  vol.  118,  579 

Larson,  L.,  Territorial  Problems  of  the  Baltic  Basin ,  13-15 
Memorandum  of  Latvia  to  Peace  Conference,  15-22 
Morrison,  The  New  Europe,  vol.  12,  77 
Statesman's  Year  Book ,  1920,  1122,  1123 
Whitakers  Almanac ,  1921,  791,  792 

C.  Lithuania 

1.  Status,  a  Republic,  free  and  independent  from  Russian  Government 

2.  Problems 

Complete  economic  prostration  and  devastation 
Lack  of  political  power 
International  non-recognition 
Territorial  boundaries  unsettled 
Relations  to  Poland  unsettled 


\ 


[29] 


Relations  to  White  Russia  unsettled 
3.  Future  Status:  Proposals 

An  autonomous  state  in  a  federated  Russia 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  urged  (see  under  Esthonia  and  Latvia) 
An  independent  state 
Arguments  for: 

Recovery  of  old  nationality 
A  buffer  state  between  Russia  and  Poland 
Arguments  against: 

Impossibility  of  political  or  economic  maintenance 
Lack  of  Lithuanian  upper  and  middle  class 
Prey  to  Russian  and  Polish  aggression 
Field  for  German  exploitation 
Union  with  Latvia 
Advantages : 

Strength,  similarity  of  race  and  language 
Gain  of  economic  power  now  entirely  lacking 
Disadvantages : 

Diversity  of  nationalist  elements 
Burden  to  Latvia 

Insufficient  strength  to  resist  Polish  imperialism  or  Russian  and 
German  aggression 
Union  with  Poland 
Arguments  for: 

Historic  claims 

Political  and  economic  strength 
Nobility  and  intelligentsia  already  Polish 
Strong  buffer  state  between  Germany  and  Russia 
Arguments  against: 

Violation  of  nationalism 
An  impossible  settlement  for  future  peace 
Independent  state  in  a  Baltic  League 
Advantages: 

Everything  to  gain ;  little  to  give 

Bulwark  against  Polish  imperialism  (see  under  Esthonia  and  Latvia) 
Difficulties: 

Present  unsettled  status  of  Lithuania,  both  national  and  international 
(March,  1921) 

Readings : 

Butler,  66-67 
Jusaitis,  ch.  8 

Statesman's  Yearbook ,  1920,  1229-1230 
Whitakers  Almanac,  1921,  792 


V 


[30] 


PREVIOUS  PUBLICATIONS 


1919 

Announcement  of  Founding  of  Institute. 

1920 

Bulletin  No.  1.  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Director. 

Bulletin  No.  2.  For  Administrative  Authorities  of  Universities  and 
Colleges. 

Bulletin  No.  3.  Observations  on  Higher  Education  in  Europe. 
Opportunities  for  Higher  Education  in  France. 

Opportunities  for  Graduate  Study  in  the  British  Isles. 


1921 


Bulletin  No.  1. 
Bulletin  No.  2. 
Bulletin  No.  3. 

Bulletin  No.  4. 


Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Director. 

Opportunities  for  Higher  Education  in  Italy. 

Serials  of  an  International  Character 
(Tentative  List  for  Libraries) 

Educational  Facilities  in  the  United  States  for  South 
African  Students. 

Bulletin  No.  5.  Guide  Book  for  Foreign  Students  in  the  United  States. 
Bulletin  No.  6.  See  Syllabus  No.  VII. 


For  the  International  Relations  Clubs 

Syllabus  No.  I.  Outline  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations. 
Syllabus  No.  II.  The  Past,  Present  and  Future  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 
Syllabus  No.  III.  The  History  of  Russia  from  Earliest  Times. 

Syllabus  No.  IV.  The  Russian  Revolution. 

Syllabus  No.  V.  The  Question  of  the  Balkans. 

Syllabus  No.  VI.  Modern  Mexican  History. 

Syllabus  No.  VII.  Hispanic-American  History. 

Syllabus  No.  VIII.  The  Question  of  the  Near  East. 

Syllabus  No.  IX.  China  Under  the  Republic. 

Syllabus  No.  X.  The  Baltic  States 


. 


, 


. 


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■ 


- 

> 

. 


' 

.  '•  > 

. 

ADVISORY  COUNCIL 


Addams,  Jane 
Alderman,  President  Edwin 
Ames,  Dean  Herman  V. 
Andrews,  Fanny  Fern 
Biggs,  Dr.  Herman 
Blakeslee,  Professor  G.  H. 
Brookings,  Robert  S. 

Bruere,  Henry 
Bull,  Dr.  Carroll  G. 

Burton,  President  M.  L. 
Byrne,  James 

Coolidge,  Professor  Archibald 
Cravath,  Paul  D. 

Cunliffe,  Professor  J.  W. 
Davis*  Katherine  B. 

Downer,  Professor  Charles  A. 
Ely,  Professor  Richard  T. 
Filene,  A.  Lincoln 
Finley,  Dr.  John  H. 

Fosdick,  Dr.  Harry  E. 

Gilbert,  Cass 
Gildersleeve,  Dean  V.  C. 
Goodnow,  President  F.  J. 
Hadley,  Dr.  A.  T. 

Hale,  Dr.  George  E. 
Harrington,  Governor  E.  C. 
Hazen,  Professor  Charles  D. 
Hibben,  President  J.  G. 

Howe,  Professor  Henry  M. 
Hughes,  Hon.  Charles  E. 
Jenks,  Professor  Jeremiah 
Judson,  President  H.  P. 
Keppel,  Frederick  P. 

Keyser,  Professor  C.  J. 

Lovett,  President  Edgar 
Lowell,  President  A.  L. 
M^cCracken,  President  H.  N. 

Woolley,  Pres 


Mali,  Pierre 

Main,  President  J.  H.  T. 
Mannes,  David 
Marling,  Alfred  E. 
Meiklejohn,  President  A. 
Milliken,  Professor  R.  A. 
Moore,  Professor  E.  H. 
Morgan,  William  Fellowes 
Neilson,  President  W.  A. 
Noyes,  Professor  Arthur  A. 
Payne,  President  Bruce  R. 
Pendleton,  President  Ellen  T. 
Pupin,  Professor  Michael  I. 
Putnam,  Herbert 
Richardson,  Dr.  E.  C. 
Robinson,  Dr.  Edward 
Sachs,  Professor  Julius 
Salmon,  Dr.  Thomas  W. 
Schwedtman,  Ferdinand  C. 
Severance,  Mrs.  C.  A. 
Shanklin,  President  W.  A. 
Shorey,  Professor  Paul 
Shotwell,  Professor  J.  T. 
Showerman,  Professor  Grant 
Stimson,  Henry  L. 

Stokes,  Dr.  Anson  Phelps 
Storey,  Professor  Thomas  A. 
Suzzallo,  President  Henry 
Thomas,  President  M.  Carey 
Todd,  Professor  Henry  A. 
Townsend,  Hon.  John  G. 
Vincent,  Dr.  George  E. 

Wald,  Lillian  D. 

White,  Professor  Henry  C. 
Wilkins,  Professor  Ernest  H. 
Wilson,  Professor  George  G. 
Woodbridge,  Dean  F.  J.  E. 
dent  Mary  E. 


t 


m 


f 


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